The History & Future of Stem Cell Research

What are stem cells?

Stem cells occupy the bodies of mammals of all species, ages and sizes. Stem cells provide every cell, organ and tissue in the body with a foundation. The stem cells that remain in the body after it is formed and fully developed have exceptionally long lives in which they self-replicate and self-sustain to contribute to the normal regeneration needed in the body. In development, they are blank until programmed with a specialized function, such as producing a spleen or a heart, or building a skeletal system (“Questions and answers,” 2011). Embryonic stem cells are those found in the tissues of an embryo and all of the organs produced for healthy gestation. There are three types of “adult” stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells, which form blood, endothelial stem cells, which form the vascular system, and mesenchymal stem cells which form muscle, fibroblasts, bone, cartilage and fat (“Questions and answers,” 2011). Additionally there are pluripotent and multi-potent stem cells, the difference between which, being that pluripotent has a specialized function with regenerative qualities and multi-potent cells have the ability to differentiate, or become one of several tissues or organs (“Questions and answers, 2011).

Embryonic Stem Cells:

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) possess a greater rate of regeneration and replication, they are considered to be more plastic than “adult” stem cells because of their natural effectiveness, considering that these are the cells responsible for composing an entire human body in around nine months. ESCs can be found in the blastocyst that is the product of the first week of conception (“Questions and answers,” 2011). Samples of this type are achieved through left over compositions of in-vitro fertilization (Green, 2001), although ESCs can also be found in amniotic fluid, baby teeth and umbilical cord blood through donors (“Questions and answers, 2011).

Hematopoietic Stem Cells:

Due to the extensive research on hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), we know much more about them than any other “adult,” human stem cell. HSCs are the regenerative tissue of the circulatory and immune system, making them invaluable to modern medicine. HSCs have the capability to become any type of blood cell, based on research. These wonderfully malleable cells thrive for extended periods in bone marrow, and periodically circulate in the blood stream, dividing into progenitor cells, precursors to specialized cells. When all functions of HSC circulation are complete, the HSC regenerate, some complete the process of apoptosis (programmed cell death) and the rest return to the bone marrow. What separates the cells that preform apoptosis versus those who do not is currently a research unknown (“Hematopoietic Stem Cells,” 2011).

Why study stem cells?

In the scientific community the pursuit to understand the human body is an endless one. Every type of cell serves some purpose. The more the functions of human cells are understood, the more possibilities unfold for preventative and treatment measures for the many things that can go wrong within the body. The short answer is the medical benefits that stem cells can provide those in need.

A brief history of stem cell research:

In 1945 scientists were researching mice that were exposed to lethal doses of radiation. It was suspected that bone marrow possessed that ability to form new blood cells. The proof arose when scientists effectively preserved the poisoned mice by transplanting bone marrow from healthy mice. In 1985, a scientist by the name of Perkins did some research on the embryonic stem cells of mice. It was determined that all progenitor cells could be produced between mouse ESCs and hematopoietic growth factors, which cause hematopoiesis or the formation of all the blood cells within the body (“Hematopoietic stem cells,” 2011).
In the 1960’s, scientists Til and McCullough discovered regenerative qualities and plastic capabilities while analyzing bone marrow. In 1992, when the plasticity of HSCs and ESCs was still an uncertainty, the New York Blood Center began storing umbilical cord blood and placenta that would otherwise be discarded to begin research on human ESCs (“Hematopoietic stem cells,” 2011). In 1998 research teams in Johns Hopkins University and the University of Wisconsin, Madison successfully grew human stem cells in culture. Their efforts included the use of telomerase to prevent death of the cell line, easing the burden of time for further research, the result; “an immortal, pluripotent human stem cell culture (Green, 2011).”
Former President Bill Clinton had aspirations to fund stem cell research during his presidency, however, his term ended and with the arrival of George W. Bush in office, research was severely limited. In 2001 Bush limited funding to research on currently established ESC lines only, and vetoed against expansion of research for two years, consecutively (Townsend, 2008), despite Kerry’s campaign for funding new cell lines in the election of 2004 (Sharockman, 2010). In 2005 Korea allowed for the cloning of embryos with the intent of extracting cells for research. Here, began the pursuit of the scientific community in the U.S. and Japan to catch up (Sabin, 2005), followed by Israel, England and Australia (Lu, 2009). President Barack Obama favored the expansion of stem cell research as a senator and opened funding to research on new ESC lines in 2008 upon being appointed president (Lu, 2009).
Current treatments and practices involving HSC and ESC
HSC is currently being stored for some cancer patients, as a finalized treatment, while they undergo chemotherapy and take other cancer treatment drugs. Upon cleansing the body of cancerous cells, HSCs from the patient are reintroduced to promote healthy regeneration, division and apoptosis of the many cells in the blood (“Hematopoietic stem cells,” 2011).
Similarly, bone marrow is transplanted from match donors to promote hematopoiesis after chemotherapy in those being treated for leukemia and lymphoma. An alternative treatment to bone marrow transplant, Gleevec, was introduced in 2001 as a means to encourage apoptosis in infected white blood cells. Results of clinical trials for Gleevec are currently an unknown (“Hematopoietic stem cells,” 2011).
Bone marrow transplants can have a positive impact in many inherited blood disorders, such as sickle-cell anemia, osteoporosis, and Hunter’s syndrome. Treatments for muscular dystrophy are also currently in clinical trials (“Hematopoietic stem cells,” 2011).

Challenges for stem cell research:

Challenges for the researcher:

There is one hematopoietic stem cell to every ten to fifteen thousand (1/10,000-15,000) bone marrow cells and to every hundred thousand blood cells in circulation of the circulatory system (“Hematopoietic stem cells,” 2011). There is no current efficient method of distinguishing between “adult” hematopoietic stem cells and other blood cells, therefore identifying them can be incredibly difficult. To add an element of challenge, without host, cells do not continue to regenerate and divide for long. Proliferation, or continuing the life of a cell outside of a host, can more easily be achieved, however, if a method of identification became available (“Hematopoietic stem cells,” 2011).
Challenges for the research:
As previously mentioned, funding has not always been readily available in the U.S. for all forms of stem cell research necessary to advance the way the scientific community aspires to in medicine. Embryonic stem cells are best extracted from destroying an embryo, which raises moral and ethical question, particularly among religious groups and those affiliated. That affiliation is likely the reason for Bush’s 2001 bill as well as his multiple vetoes against opening funds for new embryonic stem cell lines.
In matters involving conception, gestation and early development, the public is often divided. While a zygote and embryo are not a person, they are the precursor to a person and to many religious institutions, the destruction of them is wrong. Incidentally, the embryos and other tissues currently being used for ESC research are tissues that would otherwise be discarded in waste; such is the case with in vitro fertilization “left-overs” and umbilical cord blood and placenta (Green, 2011).
Federal funding is no longer a concern under the Obama administration, although, due to economic decline, much funding, outside of what is provided by the federal government is in jeopardy (Lu, 2009). In addition, the fifteen years of debate surrounding the funding of stem cell research may have cost the U.S. an entire generation of scientists who may have dedicated their career to studying stem cells, according to the co-director and co-founder of the Harvard Stem Cell Institute, David Scadden, whose research involves mainly hematopoietic stem cells (Calborn, 2011).

Challenges in “cell-therapy:”

“Cell therapy” is the term for the use of stem cells to replace damaged cells with healthy cells. Identification of HSCs also presents a problem with treatment, as well as the availability of enough HSCs at a time to be effective (“Questions and answers,” 2011). Researchers have been able to extract HSCs from bone marrow in a donor using Granulocyte Colony Stimulating Factors (GCSF). The blood is filtered through a machine that catches CD34+ cells, or cobblestone area-forming cells, and then returns red blood cells. This yields a five to 20% concentration of “true hematopoietic stem cells (“Hematopoietic stem cells,” 2011).”
ESCs also present problems that cannot be ignored within the realm of “cell therapy” treatment. First, as with conception, the conditions of integration must be immaculate for the therapy to be successful (“Hematopoietic stem cells,” 2011). White blood cells fight off foreign cells, for they are designed to determine the difference between self and non-self. This is the cause when the body rejects transplanted tissue (Alters & Alters, 2008). T lymphocytes, a specialized white blood cell that has the capability to differentiate as well, are great for integrating EBCs and fighting off infection, however, they are also the cause for graft-versus-host disease. In order to properly integrate, immune-suppression therapy need take place, which is a dangerous endeavor (“Hematopoietic stem cells,” 2011).

The future of stem cell research:

[Extracting stem cells from a patient]. . . That can become the ultimate, personalized medicine tool kit: a stem cell-based tool kit to study what goes wrong, determine what drug candidates might affect it, and possibly even supply the cells to replenish those lost in the disease.

– David Scadden (Clalborn, 2010)
Stem cell research, as it progresses over the next decade or more, will be exploring the plasticity of stem cells and the possibility of using them to grow whole organs, tissues and cure degenerative diseases such as muscular dystrophy and Parkinson’s disease (“Questions and answers,” 2011).
Stem cells found in the brain are almost completely inactive, they barely respond to injury or disease. The use of ESCs to treat mental illness or brain injuries is a real possibility in the future, due to the current support from the federal government (“Questions and answers,” 2011).

In summary:

Should the next president continue funding of ESC research, an assay for identification and/or solution of proliferation become available to scientist and the economy make a full recovery, there will still be challenges ahead for stem cell researchers. For every question answered is bound to inspire even more questions.
As with any research and development of medical treatment, morals and ethics must play a role in regulation and law. People must be protected, donors must be protected and rights must be protected. Conforming to the proper guidelines, the results of stem cell research are seemingly endless. It is with bated breath that the families of fatally ill and mortally wounded patients wait for an answer to their prayers. Stem cell research could quite possibly be that answer.

References:

Alters & Alters (2008) Biology: Understanding Life. Hoboken, NJ.

Clalborn, K. (2011). Federal funding for stem cell research: 15 years of indecision. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 121(7), 2531.

Green, R. (2001). The stem-cell debate. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/miracle/stemcells.html

Hematopoietic stem cells. In Stem cell information [world wide web site]. Bethesda, MD: National
Institutes of Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2011) [cited Wednesday, November 16, 2011] Available at http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/scireport/chapter5

Lempien, E. (2011, July 28). AAAS welcomes court ruling to allow continued federal funding of
embryonic stem cell research. Retrieved from http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2011/0728stem_cell.shtml

Lu, A. (2009, March 04). Budget cuts endanger stem-cell research in NJ. The Philadelphia Inquirer, p. A1.

Questions and answers about stem cells. (2011). Retrieved from
http://www.aaas.org/news/press_room/stemcell/faq.shtml

Sabin, B. (2005). Stem cell research-who benefits? who loses?. J@pan Inc, (64), 3.

Sharockman, A. (2010, June 11). Bill mccollum and barack obama see eye-to-eye on stem cell research, rick scott claims. St. Petersburg Times.

Stem cell information [world wide web site]. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health. U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services. (2011) [cited Wednesday, November 16, 2011] Available at http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/health

Townsend, T. (2008, September 26). Mccain stem cell ad irks conservative christians ad never uses the term 'embryonic,' which is at the heart of dispute about stem cells in missouri. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. C1.

Henrietta Lacks And Bioethics

Henrietta Lacks is arguably the most important woman to the advancement of biology to ever have lived. Mrs. Lacks was diagnosed at 29 in 1951 with Stage 1 invasive cervical cancer. Married mother of 5, Lacks turned to Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland when she began spotting well prior to her menstruation cycle and discovered a lump on her cervix (“The miracle woman,” 2010). Her first treatment was given right after a biopsy that neither she nor her husband consented to. Three months later, she died (“The miracle woman,” 2010). Mrs. Lacks cells produced the first immortal cell, dividing at such a rate that an entire generation was born in just 24 hours (“The story of,” 2010). Coined “HeLa” cells, Henrietta’s cells have been used to test the effect of chemotherapy, develop methods for cloning, gene mapping and in-vitro fertilization (“Five reasons henrietta,” 2010). They helped produce treatments for polio (“Five reasons henrietta,” 2010), influenza, herpes, Parkinson’s, hemophilia, leukemia and lactose intolerance(Skloot, 2010). Because of her biopsy scientists have come to understand the intricacies of DNA and the effects of zero-gravity on human cells and can be attributed to the clinical trials currently in place for a cancer treatment (Skloot, 2010). In a short period of time after discovering the immortality of “HeLa” cells, they became the standard for research sold to labs all over the world (“The story of,” 2010). And even though the pathologist and doctor taking the biopsy has profited millions of dollars by selling her tissues all over the world (NPR, 2010), her family knew nothing of her contribution until 25 years later when scientists sought to test their cells for similar properties (Skloot, 2010). In fact, early publications briefly mentioned Henrietta in journals and text books as “Helen Lane (Skloot, 2010),” referencing no more than her condition perhaps to protect the lack of authorization of the pathologist who biopsied her.

The outrage of Henrietta’s family, a group of people who could not afford health insurance despite the immense fortune Henrietta’s cells was responsible for, was well documented in special interest magazines, such as Ebony, despite Henrietta’s absence from medical journals, and laid the foundation for an establishment of bioethics, at least the matter that handles the importance of consent and credit where it is due. Also, as a contribution to epidemiology, this is a perfect example of balancing research of a condition with ways to treat it (Outram, 2011).

I definitely see purpose in bioethics, within reason. In my opinion that doctor and pathologist had absolutely no right to benefit financially from “HeLa” cells. The first manner of business when their properties were identified should have been to notify Mrs. Lacks of their discovery, attempt further treatment with their findings and offer negotiations for the continued use. Perhaps she could have supplied further samples, her family could have been involved earlier and the “HeLa” cells could have been supplied throughout the scientific community free of charge. I would think it is public opinion that making millions of dollars off of “stolen property” is not just unethical, it is also fraud. I understand that had she not consented and her wishes were respected, that we would not be where we are today as far as our understanding of medicine and human processes, but at the very least a profit should not have been made regarding the sale of “HeLa” cells.

In regards to other bioethics issues, I feel this discipline has a responsibility to protect the individual rights of the patient and "donor," as well as the safety and well-being of the public. I do not, however, think that morals and ethics should be based on any religious beliefs. I do not believe that religion has any place in science, in fact, I believe it to be a detriment to the advancement of science. Morals, without religious belief, are perfectly capable of protecting the public as well as individual patient rights.

As an afterthought, I was unable to find even a mention of bioethics or epidemiology in the index of our text book. Curious.

References:

Five reasons henrietta lacks is the most important woman in medical history [Web log message]. (2010, February 05). Retrieved from http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-01/five-reasons-henrietta-lacks-most-important-woman-medical-history

‘Henrietta lacks': A donor's immortal legacy [Web series episode]. (2010) In NPR : National Public Radio : News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts : NPR. NPR : National Public Radio : News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts : NPR. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/2010/02/02/123232331/henrietta-lacks-a-donors-immortal-legacy

Outram, S. M. (2011). Epidemiology and bioethics: A plea for reconnecting with the public. REVUE CANADIENNE DE SANTÉ PUBLIQUE, 102, 4-6. Retrieved from ProQuest.
Skloot, R. (2010). The immortal life of henrietta lacks. New York, NY: Crown. Epilogue. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/2010/02/02/123232331/henrietta-lacks-a-donors-immortal-legacy

The miracle woman. (2010), O : The Oprah Magazine, 11(2), 159. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/219581652?accountid=8289

The story of henrietta lacks & modern medical research, this week on sound medicine - office of public and media relations. (2011, May 24). IU Medicine Communications. Retrieved from http://communications.medicine.iu.edu/newsroom/stories/2011/the-story-of-henrietta-lacks-and-modern-medical-research-this-we/

A Look @ Biodiversity

I agree that when compared to the efforts going toward preserving endangered species, that the decline versus the recovery is absolutely stifling, however, research from this decade suggests that positive results are on the rise (Jeffery, Kiernan, Martin, Rachlinski, Suckling & Taylor, 2011). In regards to the Endangered Species Act, it was documented throughout the 1990’s that recovery starts to become a realistic goal the longer a species remained on the endangered species list (Jeffery, Kiernan, Martin, Rachlinski, Suckling & Taylor, 2011). What is the price of quality living? What is the price of life? I believe those are questions one need ask oneself when considering opposition of any brand of environmental reform. The fact is, as of 2010, the evidence of a need for further environmental reform is undeniable.

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), in 2010 12% of all birds, 21% of mammals, 28% of reptiles, 37% of fresh-water fish, 50% of amphibians, and a horrifying 70% of botanical species are in danger of extinction and actual number are on the rise, daily (Godoy, 2010). According to the World Wildlife Fund, (WWF) 27% of known species vanished between the years of 1970 and 2005 (Godoy, 2010). Europe’s TEEB (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity) suggest loss of 7.2 billion USD between the years of 2000 and 2050, attributed to the decline in biodiversity (Godoy, 2010).

From a biological perspective, biodiversity is essential in maintaining the biosphere and sustaining life on our planet. The decimation of biological diversity, in turn, complicates research and developmental possibilities, including future and present preventative measures (Alters & Alters, 2008). From a personal stand point, not only would my nutrition and that of my children be compromised in a life with limited biodiversity, also, the economy would fail to recover causing further hardship in the lives of my loved ones as well as myself, but as a nature enthusiast, seeing our planet in any worse shape than it is presently would be devastating to say the least (Godoy, 2010). Nutrition will suffer when crops begin to fail because of harsh conditions and a lack of pollenating species, the economy will deteriorate with the crops and when poor nutrition has many people out of work because of a difficulty recovering from illness and injury(Jeffery, Kiernan, Martin, Rachlinski, Suckling & Taylor, 2011). That being said, I certainly would be willing to put economic gains on hold to preserve the environment. Of course, I see that as a temporary but necessary chiseling of the economy.

Preservation to the necessary extent will be a lengthy and involved process that will take man-power on many different levels, and it is, therefore, my belief that these changes will eventually boost the economy (Jeffery, Kiernan, Martin, Rachlinski, Suckling & Taylor, 2011).


References:

Alters. , & Alters, (2008). Biology: Understanding life. (pp. 741-753). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Godoy, J. (2010). Biodiversity: 'pious words won't save endangered species'. United
States, New York: Global Information Network. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/457553476?accountid=8289

Jeffery, J., Kiernan , F., Martin, M., Rachlinski, , Suckling, , & Taylor, (2005). The effectiveness of the endangered species act: a quantitative analysis. Bioscience, 55(4), 360-366.

Vascular dermal tissue vs. human integument

The dermal tissue of a vascular plant and the integument of the human body are similar in function for the following reasons:

1) Both the dermal tissue and the integument are a barrier, protecting the organs contained within the plant/body (Alters & Alters, 2008).

2) Both the dermal tissue and the integument have a means to combat ultraviolet radiation’s possible damage (Alters & Alters, 2008).

a) The dermal tissue of a vascular plant produces “hairs” called trichomes that reflect light (Alters & Alters, 2008).

i) Trichomes cover the dermal tissue much like vellus hair (fine white hairs) covers the human integument (Alters & Alters, 2008).

b) The integument produces melanin, a chemical which absorbs UV rays (Alters & Alters, 2008).

3) Epidermal cells have a waxy layer called the “cuticle” that protects the plant from water loss, the human equivalent would be the sebum (oil) secreted by the sebaceous gland in the hair follicles, although human skin is essentially what keeps the bodily fluids contained (Alters & Alters, 2008).

4) Stomata are the “pores” of vascular plants. They release water in a process called “transpiration (Bishop).”

The dermal tissue of vascular plants and the integument of the human body differ in function in the following ways:

1) Firstly, sebum is mainly for clearing the hair follicle (Rudh, 2011), while the cuticle of dermal tissue serves the aforementioned purpose of retaining water (Bishop).

2) Vellus hair catches bacteria to reduce the chance of infection (Milady's standard cosmetology, 2008), while trichomes, as I mentioned, reflect light and are also, sometimes, a protection from predators.

3) Human pores release waste products through sweat (Milady's standard cosmetology, 2008), stomata only release water .

4) Human integument is a sensory surface where dermal tissue does not as there is no vascular plant-equivalent to a nervous system (Alters & Alters, 2008).

5) Human integument is elastic, therefore, it expands and contracts according to movement, whereas dermal tissue is rigid (Alters & Alters, 2008).

6) Human integument has the ability to regulate temperature and produce vitamin D, which indirectly aids bone development, while vascular plants temperature and food source rely wholly on the sun (Alters & Alters, 2008).

References:
Alters, B., & Alters, S. (2008).Biology: understanding life. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Bishop, T. (n.d.). Virtual lab: plant transpiration. Retrieved from http://mhlearningsolutions.com/apu_biologylabs/planttranspiration/index.html

(2008). Milady's standard cosmetology textbook . New York, NY: Milad'ys Publishing Corporation.

Rudh, A. (2011, January 3).Sebaceous glands- location, functions and pictures. Retrieved from http://www.primehealthchannel.com/sebaceous-glands-location-functions-and-pictures.html

An Educated Stance on Genetic Engineering

The benefits of genetic engineering include a higher yield in crops (“Benefits of gm," 2011), extended life-span of products, a decrease in the use of insecticides, herbicides and chemical fertilizers and therefore the release of harmful substances into the atmosphere and water supply (Borello, 2011), reasonable cost of products (Holdsworth, Knight & Mather, 2005) due to more efficient farming, availability to yield in less than favorable conditions as well as yielding higher in limited land, and lastly, an abundance of efficient farming helps combat starvation in places where viable land is sparse which aids the proper development of children by providing proper nutrition (Borello, 2011).
After reviewing a few articles, the only real threat I am finding is possible allergies to the genetically engineered produce ("Benefits of gm," 2011). There were concerns for tipping the eco system discussed in a couple of the articles, however, the scientists interviewed made valid points about genetically modified crops improving the food chain rather than providing a detriment (Borello, 2011). Of course there are moral objections which suggest molecular biology is “playing god (Holdsworth, Knight & Mather, 2005),” but if good can be done, some would say not pursuing genetic engineering further is the real risk.

Personally, I think that genetic engineering is the next logical step in agriculture. The population is higher due to advances in medicine and to support our population efficient farming is not just necessary, it is integral (Borello, 2011).
I find it rather unfortunate that personal beliefs are getting in the way of widespread genetic engineering with all the benefits that are possible. Arguments include taking money from the local farmer, making the industry more about farmers than consumers, prices of genetically engineered seed increasing and pests and herbicides adapting to genetic mutations (Holdsworth, Knight & Mather, 2005).
Between 1996 and 2006, Biotech put thirty-three billion dollars in the pockets of farmers. As of 2009, 90% of the 13.3 million farmers using Biotech products were independent farmers cultivating on a small land-mass (Gustin, 2009).
The original research teams responsible for mainstream genetic engineering, succeeded by Roger Beachy, responsible for GE tomatoes resistant to the tomato mosaic virus, was experimenting with increasing the nutrient value of produce. However, Beachy claims that the companies willing to lend funding to academic research were not willing to pay more for such nutrient rich foods, namely General Mills and Kellogs (Borello, 2011).

It is easy to point the finger at something so controversial and novel when profits fall, but according to Monsanto Co., one of the biggest biotech companies in 2009, prices of farming supplies have increased for everyone whether or not they are cultivating with genetic engineering (Gustin, 2009).
In the business of herbicides and pests mutating to adapt to genetic modification, that is a nature at her finest. The only thing we can do to combat these mutations destroying future crops is continue research and development as with any product (Borello, 2011).

References:

Benefits of gm foods outweigh risks. (2011, June 30). South China Morning Post, p. 10.

Borello, B. (2011). Food fight.Scientific American, 304(4), 80-83. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy2.apus.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=59347926&site=ehost-live

Gustin, G. (2009, February 12). Biotech produces bumper-crop, states use of gm seeds has grown but critics remain wary. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. C2.

Holdsworth, D., Knight, J., & Mather, D. (2005). Consumer benefits and acceptance of genetically modified food. Journal of Public Affairs, 10(5), 226-235. DOI: 10.1002/pa.24

The Finished Essay

To Look at the Stars:
An Excursion in Astronomy


You might say there is a need inside everyone to connect to the rest of the universe. Amateur and professional astronomers alike gaze up into the heavens simply to observe what can be found there. Astronomy, academically and professionally, is the study and observation of the universe( it's stars, planets, moons, galaxies, etc.) as well as the theories surrounding it's many components. According to a popular television show on the Science Channel, Through The Worm Hole, as narrated by Morgan Freeman(2010) astronomy and biology have come together in the pursuit of finding water and life on planets other than our own. With the technological advances in modern times and the sheer vastness of the cosmos, now is an interesting time to explore the dimensions of the structure and chaos from whence we came.

"On the observational side, by far the most important development has been the measurement of fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background radiation by COBE (the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite) and other collaborations. These fluctuations are the fingerprints of creation, the tiny initial irregularities in the otherwise smooth and uniform early universe that later grew into galaxies, stars, and all of the structures we see around us. Their form agrees with the predictions of the proposal that the universe has no boundaries or edges in imaginary time direction. . ." (Stephen Hawking, The Illustrated A Brief History of Time / The Universe In A Nutshell, 2008)

It was once believed that our universe existed in stagnation. Creation was merely a topic for theologians until 1929, when Edwin Hubble would change the perspective of science forever in observing that galaxies at a vast distance were moving away from us quickly. Thus began the theory that the universe is expanding into infinite space from a time where it's contents were at exactly the same point and essentially, infinite density (History of the Universe, pp. 13-14).
In the years of World War II a need for experimentation to facilitate observational needs spawned a "rapid development of technology" which gave opportunity to the astronomical community through radio waves. Relying on optical telescopes limited the availability of knowledge to early astronomers. Physics joined astronomy in the current ability to observe our universe from unfathomable distances (Giacconi, 2005).

Perhaps the most fascinating aspect of astronomy is with the inclusion of biology, known as astrobiology. Astrobiology is the study of living organisms and the pursuit of terrestrial intelligence in the universe (Giacconi, 2005). Recent discoveries using NASA’s Infrared Telescope facility show that the life on our planet, that is, the water, may have derived from asteroids and comets. Asteroid 24, known as Thetis, located 279 miles from the sun was observed on seven instances showing the infrared signatures of organic carbon-based materials and water ice. The men responsible for this discovery are Joshua Emery of the University of Tennessee and Andrew Rivkin of Johns Hopkins University and they claim this information plays a role in our history as well as our future in that asteroids may be paving the way today for” interplanet” communication tomorrow. Or perhaps they already have (Andrews, 2010).

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization announced their plans in January of 2009 to launch The International Year of Astronomy mid-month with several programs to both educate interested parties as well as promote an interest among the masses. This recognition reads loud and clear the importance stressed by a global organization on the education of astronomy for the world (US Federal News, Dateline, 2009).

"The Year coincides with the 400th anniversary of Galileo's first observations with an astronomical telescope. It is an opportunity for people all over the world to rediscover their place in the universe by observing the sky at night and during the day. It is also intended to provide a platform for informing the public about recent discoveries in astronomy, while demonstrating the central role that astronomy can play in science education." (UNESCO Statement Release, Dateline, 2009)

In the course descriptions of the registration portion of the APUS campus for Introduction to Astronomy and Introduction to Astronomy Lab I was informed I would be given the chance to study the history of early astronomy and astronomers as well as an in-depth look of the components of the universe(stars, planets, moons, galaxies, etc). Also included in the curricula are the theories of quantum physics such as black holes and time travel (n.d).

Due to the volume of sale of his famed publications, Stephen Hawking is arguably the most recognizable figure in Astronomy of our time. Hawking was even referenced in a dirty joke in the 2008 Judd Apatow film Knocked Up. In the illustrated hard-back edition of the combined works A Brief History of Time and The Universe in a Nutshell Hawking relays how the advances in science via Albert Einstein, Isaac Newton and Galileo Galilei have shaped our present view on the cosmos, their theories as well as his own and what we have since come to call fact as well as what has yet to be either proven or disproven.

To pursue astronomy could lead to many things. In astrophysics one might use current collected data to further advance the reaches of our observational abilities. In astrobiology one might observe several solar systems in search of water and/or biological organisms. There is always the possibility of space exploration with satellites, research and publication is an option, and then there's also teaching. Whatever the outcome, one in pursuit of astronomy has the rare chance to be a part of something with a magnitude much grander than our own thriving planet.

In conclusion, and perhaps in response to that something deep down desperate to connect to totality, I look forward to what an Introduction to Astronomy and Introduction to Astronomy Lab in December will lay out before me. Will I be captured by the fascinations of the cosmos? I suppose you could say I already am.






Works cited:

Andrews, B.. "Water and organic compounds found on asteroid. " Astronomy 1 Aug. 2010: Research Library, ProQuest. Web. 22 Aug. 2010.

Giacconi, Riccardo. International Journal of Modern Physics A: Particles & Fields; Gravitation; Cosmology; Nuclear Physics, 7/20/2003, Vol. 18 Issue 18, p3127, 23p. Database: Academic Search Premier. Web. 17 Aug. 2010.

Giacconi, Riccardo. “Annual Review of Astronomy & Astrophysics”, 2005, Vol. 43 Issue 1, p1-30
Academic Search Premier. Web. 17 Aug. 2010.

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